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schema: foundry-doc-v1 schema: foundry-doc-v1
title: "Parking Structures (PKS)" title: "Parking Structures (PKS)"
slug: parking-structures slug: parking-structures
category: archetypes category: archetypes
type: concept type: concept
content_type: topic content_type: topic
quality: complete quality: complete
status: active status: active
audience: vendor-public audience: vendor-public
bcsc_class: public-disclosure-safe bcsc_class: public-disclosure-safe
language_protocol: PROSE-TOPIC language_protocol: PROSE-TOPIC
last_edited: 2026-06-15 last_edited: 2026-06-15
editor: pointsav-engineering editor: pointsav-engineering
paired_with: parking-structures.es.md paired_with: parking-structures.es.md
short_description: "A Parking Structure is a 3–9 story multi-level car park at a regional airport or intercity train station — one of three Location Intelligence archetypes. Its defining relationship: a Regional Market feeds a Metro Market by plane or train, and the parking structure is the infrastructure that makes this journey possible at scale." short_description: "A Parking Structure is a 3–9 story multi-level car park at a regional airport or intercity train station — one of three Location Intelligence archetypes. Its defining relationship: a Regional Market feeds a Metro Market by plane or train, and the parking structure is the infrastructure that makes this journey possible at scale."
cites: [] cites: []
--- ---
A **Parking Structure** is a 3–9 story multi-level car park located at a regional airport or intercity train station. Its function is to serve residents of a Regional Market who drive to the transit node, park their car, and travel onward by plane or train to a Metro Market. A **Parking Structure** is a 3–9 story multi-level car park located at a regional airport or intercity train station. Its function is to serve residents of a Regional Market who drive to the transit node, park their car, and travel onward by plane or train to a Metro Market.
The defining relationship: a **Regional Market feeds a Metro Market** either by plane or by train. The parking structure is the physical infrastructure that makes this journey possible at scale. The defining relationship: a **Regional Market feeds a Metro Market** either by plane or by train. The parking structure is the physical infrastructure that makes this journey possible at scale.
Three-letter code: **PKS**. One of three Location Intelligence archetypes alongside [[professional-centres|Professional Centres (PRO)]] and [[vertical-warehouse|Vertical Warehouse (VWH)]]. Three-letter code: **PKS**. One of three Location Intelligence archetypes alongside [[professional-centres|Professional Centres (PRO)]] and [[vertical-warehouse|Vertical Warehouse (VWH)]].
## The regional-to-metro relationship ## The regional-to-metro relationship
A PKS site sits at the hinge between two market types: A PKS site sits at the hinge between two market types:
- **Regional Market** — the city or suburb where the parking structure's users live and shop (captured by the existing T1/T2/T3 PRO cluster system) - **Regional Market** — the city or suburb where the parking structure's users live and shop (captured by the existing T1/T2/T3 PRO cluster system)
- **Metro Market** — the major city that those users travel to by plane or train - **Metro Market** — the major city that those users travel to by plane or train
The PKS parking structure exists because the journey between them is long enough that driving to the transit node and parking beats driving all the way to the metro. This threshold is approximately 15–150 km: The PKS parking structure exists because the journey between them is long enough that driving to the transit node and parking beats driving all the way to the metro. This threshold is approximately 15–150 km:
| Distance to major metro | PKS viability | | Distance to major metro | PKS viability |
|---|---| |---|---|
| ≤15 km | Too close — suburb; driving to the metro is faster than parking and transiting | | ≤15 km | Too close — suburb; driving to the metro is faster than parking and transiting |
| 15–100 km | Prime PKS zone — 1–2 hours driving; transit saves meaningful time | | 15–100 km | Prime PKS zone — 1–2 hours driving; transit saves meaningful time |
| 100–150 km | Viable if transit is fast (high-speed rail, direct flight) | | 100–150 km | Viable if transit is fast (high-speed rail, direct flight) |
| >150 km | Standalone market; may have its own metro relationship or be too remote | | >150 km | Standalone market; may have its own metro relationship or be too remote |
## Transit anchor types ## Transit anchor types
### Regional airports ### Regional airports
A regional airport is distinguished from a major hub by: A regional airport is distinguished from a major hub by:
- Serving primarily domestic routes or short-haul international destinations - Serving primarily domestic routes or short-haul international destinations
- Passenger volume typically 500,000–5,000,000 annually - Passenger volume typically 500,000–5,000,000 annually
- Located 15–150 km from a major metro centre - Located 15–150 km from a major metro centre
- No T1 Professional Centres cluster immediately adjacent - No T1 Professional Centres cluster immediately adjacent
OSM identification: `aeroway=aerodrome` with `aerodrome:type IN (public, regional, domestic)` or `iata=*` tag present. Exclude: `aerodrome:type IN (private, military, glider)`, `aeroway=heliport`, `aeroway=airstrip`. OSM identification: `aeroway=aerodrome` with `aerodrome:type IN (public, regional, domestic)` or `iata=*` tag present. Exclude: `aerodrome:type IN (private, military, glider)`, `aeroway=heliport`, `aeroway=airstrip`.
**Country exceptions:** **Country exceptions:**
- Mexico: No national intercity passenger rail — PKS is airport-only - Mexico: No national intercity passenger rail — PKS is airport-only
- Iceland: No passenger rail — airport-only - Iceland: No passenger rail — airport-only
### Intercity train stations ### Intercity train stations
An intercity train station serves trains that travel 30–150 km to a major metro centre. This is distinct from metro/subway stations, commuter rail platforms, and tram and light rail stops. An intercity train station serves trains that travel 30–150 km to a major metro centre. This is distinct from metro/subway stations, commuter rail platforms, and tram and light rail stops.
OSM identification: `railway=station` with `station NOT IN (subway, light_rail, tram, monorail)`, further filtered by membership in route relations with `service IN (long_distance, high_speed, regional)`. OSM identification: `railway=station` with `station NOT IN (subway, light_rail, tram, monorail)`, further filtered by membership in route relations with `service IN (long_distance, high_speed, regional)`.
**National intercity operators by country:** **National intercity operators by country:**
| Country | Operator | | Country | Operator |
|---|---| |---|---|
| US | Amtrak | | US | Amtrak |
| CA | VIA Rail Canada | | CA | VIA Rail Canada |
| FR | SNCF (TGV, Intercités, TER) | | FR | SNCF (TGV, Intercités, TER) |
| DE | Deutsche Bahn (ICE, IC, EC, RE, RB) | | DE | Deutsche Bahn (ICE, IC, EC, RE, RB) |
| ES | Renfe (AVE, Alvia, Regional) | | ES | Renfe (AVE, Alvia, Regional) |
| IT | Trenitalia, Italo | | IT | Trenitalia, Italo |
| AT | ÖBB (Railjet, Intercity) | | AT | ÖBB (Railjet, Intercity) |
| NL | NS | | NL | NS |
| SE | SJ | | SE | SJ |
| DK | DSB | | DK | DSB |
| NO | Vy (formerly NSB) | | NO | Vy (formerly NSB) |
| FI | VR Group | | FI | VR Group |
| PT | CP (Comboios de Portugal) | | PT | CP (Comboios de Portugal) |
| PL | PKP Intercity, RegioJet | | PL | PKP Intercity, RegioJet |
## Co-location signals for site selection ## Co-location signals for site selection
**Essential:** **Essential:**
| Signal | Threshold | Rationale | | Signal | Threshold | Rationale |
|---|---|---| |---|---|---|
| Regional transit anchor | ≤3 km | Airport or intercity station with direct metro service | | Regional transit anchor | ≤3 km | Airport or intercity station with direct metro service |
| Metro isolation | 15–150 km | Defines the regional relationship | | Metro isolation | 15–150 km | Defines the regional relationship |
| T1 or T2 PRO cluster | ≤10 km | The Regional Market whose population generates parking demand | | T1 or T2 PRO cluster | ≤10 km | The Regional Market whose population generates parking demand |
| Multi-lane road access | ≤1 km | Parking structure inflow/outflow requires arterial capacity | | Multi-lane road access | ≤1 km | Parking structure inflow/outflow requires arterial capacity |
| Regional population | ≥150,000 | Minimum demand for structure viability | | Regional population | ≥150,000 | Minimum demand for structure viability |
**Significant:** **Significant:**
| Signal | Threshold | Rationale | | Signal | Threshold | Rationale |
|---|---|---| |---|---|---|
| Car rental within 1 km | — | Arriving travellers need transport; highest-confidence PKS commercial signal | | Car rental within 1 km | — | Arriving travellers need transport; highest-confidence PKS commercial signal |
| Hotel cluster | ≤500 m | Business travel; multi-day parking demand | | Hotel cluster | ≤500 m | Business travel; multi-day parking demand |
| Second transit mode | ≤5 km | Airport + train station = multi-modal integration; highest-value sites | | Second transit mode | ≤5 km | Airport + train station = multi-modal integration; highest-value sites |
| No major hub | ≥30 km | Competing major airport kills park-and-fly demand to regional | | No major hub | ≥30 km | Competing major airport kills park-and-fly demand to regional |
**Disqualifying:** **Disqualifying:**
- Major international airport within 15 km - Major international airport within 15 km
- Population under 100,000 - Population under 100,000
- No direct service to a major metro - No direct service to a major metro
## Commercial co-location pattern ## Commercial co-location pattern
From Overpass API queries against four confirmed PKS test sites (Toluca MX, Delicias MX, Largo FL, Haines City FL): From Overpass API queries against four confirmed PKS test sites (Toluca MX, Delicias MX, Largo FL, Haines City FL):
| Commercial use | Signal strength | Notes | | Commercial use | Signal strength | Notes |
|---|---|---| |---|---|---|
| Car rental | Defining | Found at every well-mapped airport zone | | Car rental | Defining | Found at every well-mapped airport zone |
| Auto parts | Strong | Present at manufacturing-belt sites (VWH/PKS spatial overlap) | | Auto parts | Strong | Present at manufacturing-belt sites (VWH/PKS spatial overlap) |
| Fuel / petrol | Strong | Pre-departure fill-up | | Fuel / petrol | Strong | Pre-departure fill-up |
| Convenience retail | Strong | Perimeter concessions | | Convenience retail | Strong | Perimeter concessions |
| Quick-service food | Moderate | 8–24 outlets per site | | Quick-service food | Moderate | 8–24 outlets per site |
## Production dataset ## Production dataset
The PKS production pipeline uses DBSCAN-based clustering of transit infrastructure — commercial airports, intercity rail stations, commuter rail, metro/subway stations, and intercity bus terminals — enriched with commercial signals: car rental, park-and-ride facilities, and hotels. The PKS production pipeline uses DBSCAN-based clustering of transit infrastructure — commercial airports, intercity rail stations, commuter rail, metro/subway stations, and intercity bus terminals — enriched with commercial signals: car rental, park-and-ride facilities, and hotels.
**7,045 clusters** across 17 display countries as of the June 2026 production build: **7,045 clusters** across 17 display countries as of the June 2026 production build:
| Tier | Count | Share | | Tier | Count | Share |
|---|---|---| |---|---|---|
| T1 Confirmed Commercial Hub | 692 | 9.8% | | T1 Confirmed Commercial Hub | 692 | 9.8% |
| T2 Drive-to Hub | 2,665 | 37.8% | | T2 Drive-to Hub | 2,665 | 37.8% |
| T3 Functional Transit Stop | 3,688 | 52.4% | | T3 Functional Transit Stop | 3,688 | 52.4% |
Rail stations dominate the dataset across all countries. The European park-and-train pattern means intercity rail sites substantially outnumber airport sites in the EU; railway stations are reliable PKS candidates wherever intercity service reaches a regional city. Rail stations dominate the dataset across all countries. The European park-and-train pattern means intercity rail sites substantially outnumber airport sites in the EU; railway stations are reliable PKS candidates wherever intercity service reaches a regional city.
## Tier classification ## Tier classification
PKS tiers use a **mode-group collapse model** that avoids double-counting transit infrastructure at the same physical node. A station that offers both intercity and commuter rail service at the same platform counts as one transit mode group (RAIL), not two. A genuine multi-modal hub must have distinct modal types — airport plus rail, for example — to qualify as multimodal. PKS tiers use a **mode-group collapse model** that avoids double-counting transit infrastructure at the same physical node. A station that offers both intercity and commuter rail service at the same platform counts as one transit mode group (RAIL), not two. A genuine multi-modal hub must have distinct modal types — airport plus rail, for example — to qualify as multimodal.
Four transit mode groups are recognised: AIR (airports), RAIL (intercity and commuter rail combined), URBAN (metro and subway), and BUS (intercity bus terminals). Four transit mode groups are recognised: AIR (airports), RAIL (intercity and commuter rail combined), URBAN (metro and subway), and BUS (intercity bus terminals).
Not all transit clusters qualify as Parking Structures. Walk-up urban stops without commercial drive-to infrastructure are excluded by a qualification gate: a cluster qualifies when it has an airport anchor (inherently drive-to), multiple distinct modal groups, or commercial enrichment evidence (car rental or park-and-ride) indicating that visitors arrive by car and leave it at the site. Not all transit clusters qualify as Parking Structures. Walk-up urban stops without commercial drive-to infrastructure are excluded by a qualification gate: a cluster qualifies when it has an airport anchor (inherently drive-to), multiple distinct modal groups, or commercial enrichment evidence (car rental or park-and-ride) indicating that visitors arrive by car and leave it at the site.
**T1 Confirmed Commercial Hub:** Airport with car rental or hotel present, or three or more distinct modal groups, or an airport with at least one enrichment signal. These are the highest-confidence park-and-travel sites — transit infrastructure plus demonstrated traveller commerce. **T1 Confirmed Commercial Hub:** Airport with car rental or hotel present, or three or more distinct modal groups, or an airport with at least one enrichment signal. These are the highest-confidence park-and-travel sites — transit infrastructure plus demonstrated traveller commerce.
**T2 Drive-to Hub:** Airport anchor without full T1 commercial enrichment, or multi-modal site with at least one enrichment signal. Strong PKS candidates with direct evidence of drive-to behaviour. **T2 Drive-to Hub:** Airport anchor without full T1 commercial enrichment, or multi-modal site with at least one enrichment signal. Strong PKS candidates with direct evidence of drive-to behaviour.
**T3 Functional Transit Stop:** Single modal group with one enrichment signal that qualifies the site as drive-to rather than walk-up. Transit infrastructure is present; the full commercial ecosystem of higher tiers is not yet established. **T3 Functional Transit Stop:** Single modal group with one enrichment signal that qualifies the site as drive-to rather than walk-up. Transit infrastructure is present; the full commercial ecosystem of higher tiers is not yet established.
The T1/T2/T3 tier labels used here are shared with the other Location Intelligence archetypes. For the general tier vocabulary, see [[colocation-tier-nomenclature]]. The T1/T2/T3 tier labels used here are shared with the other Location Intelligence archetypes. For the general tier vocabulary, see [[colocation-tier-nomenclature]].
## Related Research ## Related Research
A companion academic study, *The Commuter Archetype: Car-Rental Clustering as a Proxy for Transit-Adjacent Commercial Co-location*, is in preparation for intended submission to the Journal of Transport Geography (Elsevier). The study identifies 14,332 Commuter candidates across eighteen countries using OpenStreetMap data and documents a rail-to-airport ratio of approximately 88% to 12%, with a 27% integration rate with adjacent commercial co-location clusters. A companion academic study, *The Commuter Archetype: Car-Rental Clustering as a Proxy for Transit-Adjacent Commercial Co-location*, is in preparation for intended submission to the Journal of Transport Geography (Elsevier). The study identifies 14,332 Commuter candidates across eighteen countries using OpenStreetMap data and documents a rail-to-airport ratio of approximately 88% to 12%, with a 27% integration rate with adjacent commercial co-location clusters.
## References ## References
- [Park and ride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_and_ride) — Wikipedia, accessed 2026-06-14 - [Park and ride](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_and_ride) — Wikipedia, accessed 2026-06-14
## Data Sources ## Data Sources
Map and location data © [OpenStreetMap contributors](https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright) / [ODbL](https://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/). Map and location data © [OpenStreetMap contributors](https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright) / [ODbL](https://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/).